Interlinguistics in China
Liu Haitao
ABSTRACT: The author reviews the history
of interlinguistics in China and summarizes the contents of some
recent publications. The article traces a path from early discussions
of language policy through a growing recognition of Esperanto as an
object of scientific study to the application of interlinguistics in
computing and terminology science. Major problems include the
inaccessibility of reference materials and the low professional
profile of the field.
Does interlinguistics exist in China? If theory provides a strong
foundation for successful practice, why has the Chinese Esperanto
movement paid little attention to the scientific study of planned
languages? In the present study I summarize the past, present and
future (?) of this field in China. Although a few articles on
interlinguistics and Esperanto studies have appeared in Esperanto
periodicals in China, I will limit my discussion to publications in
scientific and specialist journals.
Early Beginnings
Articles on the idea of an international language were published in
the Chinese media as early as the second and third decades of this
century. Most of these were written for the purpose of disseminating
Esperanto, but several works dealt with the history and present state
of the international language movement in general - for instance,
translations of certain works of E. Drezen and E. Spiridovic. (note 1)
These early efforts were associated with the Chinese language reform
movement, whose principal goal was to reform and replace the Hanzi
(ideographic) writing system. It is worth noting that many
discussions on Esperanto took place in the famous journal "Xin
Qingnian" (New Youth). One linguist even went so far as to
propose that Esperanto should replace Chinese as the language of the
educated classes. This influence lasted into the post-revolutionary
period, when several early Esperanto activists became professionally
involved in Chinese language reform. (note 2)
To sum up, discussions in this period focused on the necessity and
possibility of an international language. As this is one of the
fundamental questions of interlinguistics, these discussions are of
some scientific interest. It should be noted, however, that the term
"guojiyu", literally "language between nations or
peoples", was usually interpreted as referring specifically to
Esperanto. In this respect most works from this period may be seen as
contributions to Esperanto studies, rather than to the broader field
of interlinguistics in the modern sense of the term (Blanke 1985).
Unfortunately this promising beginning was cut short. In the decades
following the 1920s, China and Chinese had to deal with many more
important and urgent problems than the question of an international language.
In 1957, the prestigious linguistics journal "Zhongguo
yuwen" (Chinese Philology) published two articles on "The
international common language and Esperanto" (Zhao 1957) and
"The problem of the formation of an international common
language" (Wu 1957). These two works, which consider the
language problem following the unification of humanity, probably
represent reactions of Chinese linguists to Stalin's doctrinal work
"Marxism and linguistics" (1951). Essentially they do not
contribute to interlinguistics as it is understood today. (note 3)
Only in 1979, in the periodical "Yuyanxue Dongtai"
(Linguistics News, a journal aimed at introducing new linguistic
theories and ideas from other countries), did an article on
interlinguistics finally appear in the Chinese linguistic press.
"On the problems of the typological classification of
international artificial langauges" (Chang 1979) is in fact
simply a translation of Kuznetsov 1976. A proper definition of the
term "interlinguistics" had to await the publication of the
Chinese edition of "Dictionary of language and linguistics "
(Hartmann and Stork 1972/1981). Translated by professional
linguists, this work provides a definition of interlinguistics under
the heading "yuji yuyanxue" (linguistics between languages).
In 1983, two articles entitled "Interlingvistiko kaj
esperantologio" were published in "La Mondo"
("Shijie", The World), the official organ of the Chinese
Esperanto League (Zhou 1983, Zhang 1983). The authors employed
contrasting Chinese terms for "interlinguistics", Zhou
preferring "guojiyuxue" (science of [the] international
language) while Zhang used "yuji yuyanxue". Despite this
difference, both gave similar definitions of interlinguistics, and
discussed several basic problems in the field. This may well have
been the first systematic introduction to interlinguistics for
Chinese readers. Unfortunely, "La Mondo" does not have a
wide readership, nor has it continued to treat interlinguistics on
other than a sporadic basis. Although interlinguistics may be
regarded as providing the theoretical basis of the Esperanto
movement, the Chinese movement appears to emphasize only the
practical aspects of the language.(note 4)
In the same year, the well-known linguist and Esperantist Chen Yuan
published "Shehui yuyanxue" (Sociolinguistics), one of the
most influential works in this field in China (Chen 1983). The book
includes a separate section on the question of an "international
auxiliary language," including a discussion of the necessary
criteria for a language of international relations. Such a language,
according to Chen, must be supra-national, politically neutral,
scientifically structured, readily pronounced, dynamic and flexible,
easily learned but not over-simplistic. The bibliography includes
references rarely found in Chinese scholarly publications, notably
the interlinguistic works of D. Blanke, E. Drezen, H.Frank, U. Lins.
In his discussion of the field, Chen uses the term "yuji yuyanxue".
Increasing Recognition
In honour of Esperanto's centenary, the linguistics journal
"Waiguoyu" (Foreign Languages) dedicated its third issue in
1988 to 14 articles on various aspects of Esperanto studies. Among
the most important articles can be mentioned "The past, present
and future of Esperanto" (Cen Qixing), "On the evolution of
Esperanto" (Li Shijun), "Esperanto as a bridge between the
world's great literatures" (Yue Fu), "Internationality and
the international language" (Zhang Hongfan), "About the
'Suplemento'" (Wei Yuanshu), "The tipological traits of
Esperanto" (Zhang Dancheng). Several of these authors are
professional linguists, including Cen Qixing who is one of the most
respected linguists in modern China. Unfortunately, because of space
restrictions, all of these articles were quite short.
The same year saw the publication of the Linguistics volume (yuyan
wenzi juan) of the monumental Great Chinese Encyclopedia (zhongguo
dabaike quanshu). It includes two articles on "International
auxiliary language" (Zhou 1988a) and "Esperanto" (Zhou
1988b). The author, Zhou Liuxi, defined interlinguistics as follows:
With the creation of an international language, a new branch of
linguistics was born - interlinguistics. Interlinguistics explores
the relationship between national languages and the future of a
universal world language, and studies the practical experience and
conditions for dissemination of an international auxiliary language.
It also includes research into the creative principles, linguistic
structure and social norms of such a language, from the perspective
of complete national languages (including basic concepts and means of
expression). These may be considered as, respectively, the political
and the linguistic approaches to the study of interlinguistics, which
in its present form consists mainly of the study of Esperanto.
Consistent with this definition, this author used the term
"guojiyuxue" as the Chinese equivalent of
"interlinguistics". Although necessarily brief, the
presence of this article in an important reference work must be
considered an important contribution to the development of the field
in China.
Regrettably, contrary examples also exist. In the context of a
futurologist perspective on international linguistic communication,
Ni (1990) devoted an entire chapter to "Future artificial
(auxiliary) languages," including the following topics:
"Zamenhof and the future of Esperanto," "Artificial
language," "A future 'human-machine' universal
language," "International trends in graphic and sign
langauges," "Birth of a cosmic language."
Theoretically this work should be part of the field of
interlinguistics, since the latter is generally considered to be a
branch of linguistics concerned with international linguistic
communication. Yet the author displays no trace of familiarity with
the interlinguistic literature, and his interesting arguments include
many erroneous or misleading statements about planned languages and
basic facts of interlinguistics.
Far more valuable for Chinese interlinguistics was the publication,
in 1992, of a translation of "Lingvistikaj Aspektoj de
Esperanto" (Linguistic Aspects of Esperanto: Wells 1979) by the well-known
publisher Shangwu Yinshuguan (Commercial Publishers: Wells 1992).
The title-page summary of the book's contents reads as follows:
This book examines the linguistic structure of Esperanto through the
prism of general linguistics, primarily the research on language
universals. The author refers to materials collected on a hundred or
so languages, and objectively analyzes many aspects of the structure
and function of Esperanto. It is of great value for Esperanto
scholars and for students of general linguistics.
In an afterword to the book entitled "International language and
interlinguistics" (Zhou 1992), the translator, Zhou Liuxi,
discusses in summary form the definition of interlinguistics and the
typology of international languages, and introduces some of the
important works in this area. In my opinion this essay is invaluable
for Chinese readers, for previously there were virtually no
systematic presentations of the scientific achievements of
interlinguistics as a branch of linguistics. The most recent work
cited by the author is Blanke (1985). Zhou's afterword also appeared
in the Esperanto magazine "La Mondo", but the book,
published in 1400 copies, undoubtedly reached a much wider readership.
New Directions
In order to bring the achievements and challenges of interlinguistics
to the attention of a wider Chinese readership, particularly among
linguists, Liu Haitao has edited and published the newsletter
"Yujiyuyanxue Tongxun" (Interlinguistic Courier) since
1992. This publication includes basic facts, news and bibliographic
listings on interlinguistics and planned languages. The contents are
similar to those of "Informilo por Interlingvistoj"
(published by the Center for Research and Documentation on World
Language Problems, Rotterdam) and "Interlinguistische
Informationen" (published by the Gesellschaft für
Interlinguistik, Berlin). Ten issues have appeared so far; its
present circulation is an average of 50 copies. Subscriptions are free.
Liu, a specialist in information technology, has also been active as
an author of articles on interlinguistics in a variety of scientific
and professional journals. Brief summaries of the contents of these
articles may give a more precise idea of the current state of
interlinguistics in China.
The journal "Qingbao Kexue" (Information Science) published
the study "Interlanguages in computational language
processing" (Liu 1993a), which systematically examines the
conditions, types and applications of interlanguages in Natural
Language Processing (NLP). The article introduces Chinese readers to
many recent advances in interlinguistics and Esperanto studies, and
includes a discussion of the author's own research. The bibliography
includes a list of the most important publications in interlinguistics.
This article was followed by a second, "The language barrier in
multilingual computer networks and its solution" (Liu 1994b),
which explores the same themes at a deeper level. The author treats
computational linguistics and interlinguistics as related sciences
directed at solving language problems - the former in the
communication between human and machine(now, particularly computer),
the latter in the communication between humans speaking different
languages. Using concepts developed within interlinguistics, Liu
describes a translation system involving human-machine cooperation on
the basis of a "universal grammar" (an informatics and
interlinguistics term not to be confused with Chomsky's
natural-language concept). In other articles on computational
linguistics the author frequently refers to the importance of
interlinguistics for solving such problems (Liu 1993b, 1994a, 1995b, 1996c).
Also in the context of computational linguistics, Li Wei(1986) kaj
Qiao Yi(1995) describe the programming development and linguistic
basis of translation systems between Esperanto, Chinese and English.
In their studies also be touched some problems of planned languages,
particularly Esperanto.
An important development was the publication of "Interlinguistics
and planned languages" in the influential linguistics journal
"Xiandai Waiyu" (Modern Foreign Languages: Liu 1995). This
paper. which discusses the historical roots of multilingualism, the
basic concepts and definitions of interlinguistics, the creation,
classification and development of planned languages, the status of
Esperanto, and the potential of interlinguistic research, was the
first of its kind to reach a wide professional audience in China. Of
similar importance was "The relationship between planned
languages and language planning" in "Waiguoyu"
(Foreign Languages: Liu 1996a). In this article, which discusses the
roots of both language planning and planned
languages(interlinguistics) as related disciplines, the author
summarizes his viewpoint as follows:
In the development of national languages, the conscious influence of
humankind on language has been very great and beneficial. Language
planning is directed at the synthetic optimalization of the regional
and/or global language situation. In fact, there is a strong
similarity between planned languages and language planning, in their
reliance on conscious intervention in language development. Planned
languages are the highest product of language planning.
A simlar perspective is expressed in Liu 1996b, on "Terminology
standardization: the view from planned languages." Following a
discussion of the fundamental issues and the pioneering work of E.
Wuester and E. Drezen, the author concludes as follows:
Terminology standardization and planned languages were both invented
to raise the quality of information exchange between people(speaking
different languages). Both are examples of the human capacity to
consciously alter language. Terminology standardization is a form of
international language planning, one increasingly important in the
imformation age. The history and experiences of planned languages can
be of considerable use for terminology science.
In a subsequent article in "Waiguoyu", "Interlinguistic
studies based on axiomatic principles" (Liu 1997), the author
broadens his focus to include perspectives from cybernetics,
mathematics, general and computational linguistics. In his opinion:
The historical development and successful functioning of a planned
language is compatible with Chomsky's theory of "universal
grammar", and W. von Humboldt's pithy formulation of the essence
of language. More specifially, a planned language is an external
realization of universal grammar; while Humboldt's maxim that
language is "the limitless use of a limited instrument"
accurately captures the fact that a planned language is born and
evolves out of a limited stock of linguistic rules and materials. In
contrast to national languages, whose rules are formulated in an a
posteriori fashion, a planned language is actually preceded by its rules.
Drawing on the recent development of corpus-based analogical
semantics within computational linguistics, the author asks whether
the semantic system of Esperanto may have developed through
analogical principles from the "Ekzercaro" of the
FUNDAMENTO (Zamenhof, 1963).
Finally, a group of articles concerns the relationship between
Chinese linguistics and planned languages. It is particularly
noteworthy that all recent Chinese language projects are types of
pasigraphy (graphical and numeric code), e.g. the "Universal
Language Code" (Liu 1992) and the "International Universal
Pictogram (IUP)" (Liu 1995c). The two authors of these
particular projects were unaware of the history and achievements of
interlinguistics, although their work may well reflect the Chinese
demand for an international lingua franca, influenced by the national
policy favouring growing international contacts and trade. Most
recently, it appears that the author of the "International
Universal Pictogram", Ms. Liu Sha, has been collaborating with
researchers at Bejing University and the National Language Commission
on the development of a machine translation system. Published reports
suggests that this team has constructed a prototype capable of
translating from IUP into English and Chinese, and has also built a
portable system capable of solving communication problems between
taxi drivers and their passengers (Liu Sha 1993, Zhou Lina 1996, Liu
Sha 1996).
The significance of the Chinese language for interlinguistics is
explored by Liu (1996d), under the three categories "Pasigraphies
based on Hanzi", "Planned languages based on the syntactic
structure of the Chinese language", and "Planned languages
using Hanzi elements as syntactic markers". After a review of
historical and syntactical issues, the author considers to what
extent the syntactical markers and affix system of Esperanto resemble
certain elements in Hanzi, and concludes that to some extent
Esperanto functions as an alphabetic pasigraphy. Considering the
success of written Chinese as a medium of communication among
different linguistic groups in China, Esperanto's success may be due
to its structural similarities to Chinese and to Hanzi in particular.
Problems and Challenges
From this brief overview of the history and present state of
interlinguistics in China, the following problems appear to me to be
especially serious and important.
1. Many basic questions remain to be addressed, among them the
existence of two Chinese terms for "interlinguistics",
"Guojiyu xue" (science of [the] international language) and
"Yuji yuyanxue" (linguistics between languages). The latter
is more widely known among linguists outside interlinguistics, while
the former was used by certain scholars(interlinguist), such as Zhou
Liuxi and Liu Haitao.It should be noted, however, that the two terms
have historically been defined to refer to the same branch of science.
2. There is a serious lack of basic reference materials on
interlinguistics, which renders objective and systematic research
highly problematic. Many studies have even published factually
incorrect statements concerning planned languages and
interlinguistics. For instance, Ni (1990) considers
"Romanid", by Z. Magyar, to be a very popular planned
language more than Esperanto, especially in Hungary, although any
interlinguistic scholar knows that Romanid never progressed beyond
the stage of a language project. In order for researchers to have
access to accurate data, the available materials must be collected
and catalogued. Unfortunately, it remains practically impossible for
most Chinese scholars to purchase overseas publications because of
currency exchange difficulties. As a partial solution, I have
developed a bibliography of interlinguistic materials available from
libraries and individuals within China. All contributions from our
colleagues in other countries would be gratefully welcomed.
3. There is a lack of scholars in this field. In present-day China it
is even difficult to find people who are willing to be professional
linguists: there is a general preference for occupations which offer
the chance to make money quickly. If linguistics cannot make itself
profitable, interlinguistics itself will have to wait even longer for
attention! Each person's worth is judged by his or her purse. Such an
atmosphere makes it very difficult to found an interlinguistic study
group. Yet without greater human and organizational resources, the
depth and scope of interlinguistic research will inevitably be limited.
4. Since interlinguistics has so far generated little interest among
the rich and famous (in linguistics or elsewhere), it is not easy to
gain entry for articles on interlinguistics in major linguistic
journals, particularly when they are the first in that publication.
As the above review demonstrated, there has been some progress in
this respect in recent years. Yet the few articles mentioned, many of
them my own, are insufficient to sustain a separate branch of
language science. Once again, financial issues play an important
role. For instance, some years ago I wrote a general introduction to
interlinguistics for a Chinese audience, and I also translated the
book of P.Janton(1987) into Chinese, but for lack of means they may
be permanently consigned to my desk drawer.
As already observed, interlinguistics is China is barely in its
infancy. Many problems and a long path of development still await it.
But we believe that pure theoretical research is not always a vain
tilting at windmills. We will continue to publish newsletters, write
papers, acquire the support of linguists, edit our bibliography,
etc... I hope that the passage of time will bring all of these
efforts to fruition.
The author expresses heartfelt thanks to Dr. D. Blanke for various
kinds of assistance in my research on planned languages and
interlinguistics over the past ten years, and to many other overseas
colleagues for their help. Thanks also to Mark Fettes for translating
this study into English and editing it for LPLP.
Notes
1. Ernest Karlovich Drezen (1892-1937) was a Latvian pioneer in
interlinguistics and terminology science who eventually fell victim
to the Stalinist purges of the 1930s. His "Historio de la
mondolingvo" (History of the World Language) remains even today
an essential reference work for serious scholars of interlinguistics.
Details of his life and work can be found in Kuznetsov (1991). Efim
Spiridovich (1891-1935), a Belorussian journalist and university
lecturer, published a series of articles on the theory of linguistic
evolution. His most important work is "Jazykoznanie i
mezhdunarodnij jazyk" (The Science of Language and the
International Language), which also exists in Japanese and Chinese
translations (Spiridovic, 1932).
2. Language reform in China passed through the following stages. The
project of writing the sounds of Hanzi and developing a uniform
system of pronunciation was begun in 1892 by Lu Gangzhang; the
standard form is now Hanyu Pinyin. In 1933, certain Chinese and
Soviet linguists developed a transliteration system for Chinese,
called "ladinghua xinwenzi" (Latinized New Script); this is
the project that attracted some Esperantists. After the People's
Republic was founded in 1949, the government established the National
Committee on Language Reform (Zhongguo wenzi gaige weiyuanhui, now,
Guojia yuyan wenzi gongzuo weiyuanhui) to put the matter on a
professional basis. Some Esperantists have occupied important posts
in this organization, for instance Ye Laishi and Chen Yuan. Besides
establishing an alphabetic standard, the Committee undertook the
simplification of Hanzi and the development of Putonghua as a common
lingua franca. An overview of language reform in China is given in
Zhou Youguang (1988); the part played by Esperanto and Esperantists
is described in greater detail in Ye Laishi (1995).
3. The development of Soviet linguistics under Stalin and its
relationship to the international language question and the Esperanto
movement is recounted in rich detail by Lins (1988: 316-383).
4. Zhou Liuxi, now is linguistics professor of Beijing normal
university(Beijing Shifan Daxue), published series of articles on
language structure and grammar of Esperanto in "La
mondo"(Zhou 1988-1990). In these studies, Zhou research the
field from the views of general linguistics and interlinguistics, he
also compared the structure of Esperanto with others planned
languages, for instance, Interlingua and Ido. Although "La
Mondo" only is internal journal of Chinese Esperanto League, the
series of Zhou is value to interlinguist.
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The paper be published in LPLP(Language Problems and Language Planning) 1/1998(p. 76-87). Thanks Mark Fettes for translation and interchange of many opinons during to prepare the English version. Original Esperanto-version be published in IpI(Informilo por Interlingvistoj).
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© Liu Haitao, 1997 |